Hilary Mantel (1)

The story of civilisation is often told in terms of technological progress, economic and domestic activities, migrations of peoples, religions, politics, and power struggles. But how can we begin to try to recover a lost understanding of what the universe is, and our place as humans within it? There seems, in pre-history, to have been an ancient worldview according to which the cosmos was alive, and cosmic order was embedded into daily life. What can the creation myths of cultures all over the world, with stories of the separation of heaven and earth from a primordial mass, and the encoding of key numbers in monuments, such as the Great Pyramid of Giza, tell us about what people believed in? How can we explain the keen interest in number, geometry and astronomy we can see in the ancient world, if we look at the monuments, from the megaliths to the pyramids and the temples, and if we look at the texts, which often cite strange numbers, from accounts of ancient cities being built, to the Pyramid texts, the Rig Veda and the Bible? By examining myths, monuments, and astronomical knowledge together, we can try to reconstruct a lost way of thinking, one that possibly governed human life for thousands of years.

  I wanted to understand why someone would go to the trouble of encoding numbers from astronomical cycles and ratios from geometry (and biology if we think of the golden ratio as present in many life forms) into a monument, when it seemed there was no obvious benefit, as at Giza. So I tried to reverse engineer the thought process, and arrived, to my surprise, at the separation of heaven from earth from a common substance, which we find in the myths (a motif, which by the way, is as widespread as the phenomenon of megalithic monuments and pyramids), and perhaps even more surprisingly, at an animist world view. It seems to me that the best way to make sense of the encoded numbers at Giza, at Khorsabad, and other places worldwide, is by an understanding that:

 a. the whole universe (the cosmos) is a living being

 b. we as humans are just one part of it and so are always influenced by it, but also influence the other parts, which means we have a role to play in keeping its internal balance and well-being

c. we need to understand the order which governs the living world in order to maintain the balance

d. Specifically, we need to understand maths and geometry, because these underpin the living world (and this includes the motions of the heavenly bodies) and use them in our human creations, from calendars to architecture, music to cities, and society.

This article examines the concept of the separation of heaven and earth, in order to try to understand why astronomical numbers would have been encoded in the pyramids of Giza, or the dimensions of the ancient city of Khorsabad. Myths describing creation, the ordering of chaos, and the division of primordial deities may have been blueprints for understanding reality, and how to live. Firstly we will look at how numbers can connect us to the distant past, especially when texts are lacking. It appears that numbers derived from geometry and astronomy were part of the design of many monuments. Secondly, we will try to understand why this would be the case, by looking at common themes from cosmogonies from around the world, in particular how heaven and earth are separated from one another in the primordial universe or cosmic egg, and the understanding of time as cyclical. Thirdly, we will look at how living a good life may have been seen to depend on the division between heaven and earth being resolved, or dissolved, and on understanding, or quantifying these cycles. Living well long ago may have meant living in harmony with the cosmos. This may have depended on studying and using numbers derived from observing the motion in the skies over time, and the natural world, and applying them to divisions of time and space on earth, including calendars and monuments, cities and society. It may also have been based on a belief that the cosmos was essentially alive.

1. Numbers

 The story of our ancestors relies on the written word, to a large extent. As a result, we know a great deal about ancient Europe and India, ancient Egypt, Babylon and China, from quite remote times. History is about the story of the written word: before that, everything that happened belongs to pre-history. We look for evidence of thought in texts, and evidence of activities in all the things that archaeology is about, from unearthed pots and human remains, to the imprint of the structures of dwellings and temples. How can we try to connect with what people believed in, what their moral, ontological and epistemological foundations were, before the time of oldest written sources? How can we begin to reach out to the minds of the builders of the great pre-historic monuments of the megalithic world? Geometry and measure can offer a way of reading ancient artefacts in ways which reveal something of the beliefs of their builders.

For many, the history of mathematics, science and philosophy begins in ancient Greece, with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Euclid as well as the so called-pre-Socratics, such as Heraclitus, Protagoras, Zeno and Pythagoras. There is textual evidence for these thinkers. To understand the world of ideas that came before these notable Greek thinkers, in particular the world within which the megalithic monuments and pyramids were built, we can look for parallels between elements of the Greeks, and other ancient thought systems, which we have textual evidence for, such as from India, Babylon, Egypt and China. It is clear that Pythagoras was not the first to discover the properties of right-angled triangles, which he is so famous for. Pythagorean triangles, such as the 3:4:5, and 5:12:13 triangles, were used in ancient Egypt, India, Babylon, France and England (6). Pythagorean triangles provide just one example of how sophisticated thinking was widespread in the pre-historic world, they also show that there was an exchange of ideas on a wide scale, and most importantly, they demonstrate an interest in mathematics. There is no reason to believe that mathematics, science and philosophy, in one form or another, are much younger than anatomically modern humans. Indeed, they could be older still. By reading ancient texts from around the world, we can find evidence of a very old and widespread belief in a cosmic order, according to which we live, and the universe functions. It becomes clear that in many traditions, it would have been important to weave elements of cosmic harmony into various structures of human life, from architecture to morality, music to religion, and science to politics.

Valuable information can also be gleaned from the measurements and proportions of ancient monuments, if they are measured precisely. This is probably because important numbers derived from astronomy, and important geometric ratios were used in the design of these monuments. This view fits with a study of many pre-historic sites, which can be interpreted as having been built to align with astronomical cycles. These cycles, such as the solar year, lunar year, Metonic and Saros cycles, may have been embedded in the design for some practical purpose. But it is difficult to always find a practical reason for this practice. In some monuments, it is possible to see how these values and ratios could have been used to help study and keep track of astronomical cycles, with the sun and moon rising and setting at key times of the year so as to produce an observable effect on site. When, for example, the sun rises in one or several key positions every year, which makes sense of the orientation and geometry of the site, such as at Stonehenge and Newgrange, then we can begin to think in terms of one of possibly many roles of these sites as analogue computers. However, sometimes the knowledge derived from centuries of studying the skies is simply encoded in the dimensions and geometry of the site, such as at Giza, and the ancient city Khorsabad, or more recently, the sun and moon towers at Chartres Cathedral, without any obvious practical need for them to be, and this is more mysterious.

When we try to understand prehistory, where words are lacking, there are often numbers to study instead. If we pay attention to the numbers present in monuments and artefacts that predate the oldest surviving texts, we can begin to interpret them in new ways. In works of fiction, drama helps us connect with the past. Through the characters, the reader can engage with a distant world. While numbers do not offer quite the same emotional range, nor as they as easy to engage with for the reader, they can be no less gripping. Numbers, too, can bring the past back to life, because they can reveal to us a world of thought, of imagination, of belief, from a distant time when certain numbers were associated with the harmony of the universe and all things in it. Numbers can help us reach out to nameless ancestors, and to very remote times, from which the written word is scarce. Numbers can give us a sense of life in a world of hundreds or even thousands of years ago. But rather than connecting us to key moments on the historical timeline, of which we must remain ignorant where there are no records, they connect us to philosophies, and to sciences. These are the numbers that can be read in Plato, or in the Rig Veda, in the Old Testament, and in myths from around the world, or in the dimensions and proportions of ancient stone monuments. The study of key ancient numbers can bring us to a view of the universe which is organised in terms of reason, and mathematics.

The numbers embedded in ancient monuments, be it in the dimensions, proportions, day to night ratios, geometry of various sun rise and setting points, or some other aspect of the site, can help us understand the motivations of their builders. It may seem surprising that such numbers could convey so much. After all if someone were to study the dimensions of a local church or school in centuries to come, they may find very little of value to unpack from them. But there is a difference between the way we (mostly) build today and the way people (often seem to have) built in the remote past: numerical systems and geometry were part of an approach to life, and perhaps death, derived from observing and measuring the world and an understanding of the universe as created in accordance with mathematical principles. The understanding of the way the universe was organised out of chaos into something which contained time and space and causality became synthesised into systems of thought. Approaches to creating structures, be they texts, calendars, or stone monuments, were influenced by the belief that there was a certain way things should be done, in accordance with the workings of the universe.

Some examples of numbers encoded in ancient monuments are:

• Discovered by Richard Heath and Robin Heath (14), the rectangle at Le Manio in Brittany is a 1:4 rectangle, with a diagonal of √17. This diagonal has a connection to the lunar cycle because if the shorter side of the rectangle is 3 units and the longer side is 12 units, the diagonal equals 3√17, or 12.3693168, which approximates the average number of lunar months in a solar year. The sides of the rectangle measure 9 metres and 36 metres, yielding a diagonal of 9√17 metres, corresponding to 3 times the number of lunations in a year. When converted to inches, this diagonal closely matches 4 solar years in days. This suggests an intentional design linking geometry, astronomy, and units of measure.

• The height of the Great Pyramid, 5775 inches (15) corresponds to the number of sidereal months of 27.321661 days in a yuga of 4 320 000 sidereal years (of 365.256 days) divided by 10 000, which is 5775.2928. This way of thinking about time is found in Aryabhata's work (c. 499), one of the most important texts in the history of Indian mathematics and astronomy, in which he states "In a yuga the revolutions of the sun are 4 320 000, or the Moon 57 753 336 (...)". (16)

• The "mean socket sides" were estimated by Petrie to be 9125.9 inches. This value of 9125.9 inches corresponds to the number of days in a 25 year cycle, with 365 days per year, approximately equivalent to 309 lunations. 365 x 25 is 9125. As Chris Johnson has observed, a cycle of 25 civil years of 365 days, equal to 9125 days, was called the Apis cycle, and he has remarked: "The fit is even closer if you use the lunar version of 309 months of the Apis cycle x 29.53059 days per average lunation which equals 9125.0481 days." (private correspondence). the perimeter of this part of the Pyramid corresponds to 100 years of 365 days expressed in inches (9125 x 4 = 36500).

• The height of the Great Pyramid can also be linked to a division into 28 parts, as there are 280 cubits of 20.62857 inches. 28 is a key number in ancient myth and astronomy. "4. And eight-and-twenty is the number of years which some say Osiris lived, and others that he reigned; for this is the number of the lights of the Moon, and it rolls out its own circle in this number of days." (17) After 28 years, the same day of the week falls on the same calendar date.

• The Giza rectangle which encompasses the north-east corner of the Great Pyramid and the south-west corner of the third pyramid measures 1 000 000 / 28 inches in length, and 1 000 000 / 28 is very close to all the cycles in earth years multiplied together: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Moon, precession, and Metonic, expressed in earth years. With the orbital periods of Mercury (0.24 years), Venus (0.615 years), Earth (1 year), Mars (1.88 years), Jupiter (11.86 years), Saturn (29.46 years), the moon (0.0748 years), the precession of the equinoxes (25 920 years), and the Metonic cycle (19 years), divided by 100, the result is 35 715.0970, a value which is very close to the measured length of the rectangle in inches, 35 713.2 as estimated by Petrie.

  1 000 000 / 28 = 35 714.2857

  0.24 x 0.615 x 1.88 x 11.86 x 29.46 x 25 920 x 0.0748 x 19 / 100 = 35 715.0970 

• The width of this rectangle corresponds to 80 years expressed in days, which is 29 220. Petrie gives 29 227.2 inches. This period is ten times an important period of 8 years which corresponds to 99 lunations and a cycle of Venus.

• The perimeter of this rectangle is equal to the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 29.53059 x 1400 inches, with the 29.53059 corresponding to the number of days in a lunation, and the 1400 to half of 28 x 100.

• Dennis Payne has observed that the heights of the three largest pyramids of Giza, expressed in inches, all add to close to 14 000, these heights being 5776, 5664 and 2564, as estimated by Petrie.

• The synodic orbital period Mars is 779.94 days (close to 780). With 779.94 / 10, we get 779.94 / 10 x 29.53059 = 230.32088, which is the value of the base side in metres, equivalent to 9067.75132. Or rounding the Mars period up, we get 780 / 10 x 29.53059 = 230.3386 for the measure in metres, equivalent to 9068.4489 inches (Petrie gives a value of 9068.8 inches for the side of the Great Pyramid).

• We might also interpret the side of Great Pyramid in inches as 24 x 378 = 9072, with 378 being the number of days in Saturn's cycle. Or we could read the side of the Great Pyramid as 2 x 378 feet. Since we can interpret the side of the Great Pyramid also as 29.53059 x 100 x 780 / 254 = 9068.45 inches, that is, 100 lunations in days multiplied by 780, the number of days in a Mars cycle, divided by 254, then we can say that, approximately, a Mars cycle of 780 days is equal to 24 x 378, the number of days in a Saturn cycle, multiplied by 254 / (100 x 29.53059).

• The diagonal of the rectangle which makes up the wall of the ancient city of Khorsabad, an important feature of the city according to it's founder Sargon II's own account, has a circumference of 19 x 28 x 8 x √π metres. 19 x 28 x 8 as a number of years is combination of three time cycles. The Metonic cycle is 19 years, after which lunar phases will occur on the same calendar dates. After 28 years, the same day of the week falls on the same calendar date. Every 8 years, the same phases of the Moon occur on roughly the same dates (octaëteris). It seems that here these cycles are combined and expressed in metres, first as the radius of a circle: 19 x 28 x 8 metres. This circle is then squared: a square of the same area is produced. The side of this square measures 19 x 28 x 8 x √π. A circle is drawn with a circumference equal to the side of this square. The diameter of this circle is equal to 19 x 28 x 8 x √π / π, which is the diagonal of the city rectangle of Khorsabad in metres. The wall perimeter itself is equal to the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 2 160 metres. A squaring of a circle procedure is repeated with the diagonal, linking it, through a quite complicated process, to a circle of radius 19 x 28 x 8 m, which is a way of representing time in a linear way. (18)

• The base perimeter of the second biggest pyramid at Giza is 8 x 19 x 223 inches (8 x 19 x 223 = 33 896, Petrie’s measure is 33 899.6 inches). In this case the 8 and 19 years cycles are combined with the Saros cycle of 223 lunations rather than the 28 year cycle.

• The sun spire at Chartres Cathedral is 365 feet, and the moon spire is 28 feet less.

  

This is just a very small number of examples to illustrate the point that astronomical numbers were encoded in ancient monuments, in ways that seem to have served no practical purpose.

Other numbers we can find in the ancient world are in texts. The Suda gives the period of the Phoenix as 654 vague years (of 365 days), which are roughly 653 tropical years, plus 163 days, for the period after which the phoenix reappears. Jules Oppert remarked that in Genesis, 653 years pass between the deluge and the end of Genesis, the death of Joseph. Also, this period of 653 years is divided into a period of 292 years, from the deluge to Abraham's birth, and 361 years, from the birth of Abraham to the death of Jacob's son. 292 years are approximately 73 Sothic cycles of 1461 days and 361 years are 19 Metonic cycles of 19 years. According to Oppert, the Phoenix cycle connects further with the Saros cycle, comprised of 223 synodic months (18 years, 11 days), leading to a combined "super cycle" of 3 265 years (5 x 653). The number 292 is half of 584, which is the synodic period of Venus (the time it takes for Venus to return to the same position as seen from Earth). This combination of 653 with major celestial cycles suggests it held a symbolic, cosmological meaning across cultures.

Another example is 153. This number appears in the Bible (John 21:11) as the number of fish caught in the miraculous catch, and has been linked to Vesica Piscis geometry, which encodes astronomical relationships. The square root of this number is very close to the average number of lunations per year.

There are many numbers given in the ancient texts, from measurements given, often in cubits or stadia, to the ages of the patriarchs or the reign of kings, or the time taken to achieve something. Many of them can be difficult to make sense of. There was clearly a concern for numbers in many texts from the ancient world, which seems curious to us today. These numbers may have played a role in people's daily lives, at a time when living according to cosmological numbers and patterns was a given, which is what we find when we study Plato, the Rig Veda, ancient calendars, and the dimensions and proportions of ancient prehistoric monuments such as the megalithic constructions and the pyramids of Egypt. To understand why this may have been the case, we can begin by turning to the myths.

2. Heaven and Earth are separated

There are two aspects of creation myths that are relevant to trying to connect back to the minds of the time of the building of megaliths and pyramids: the first is that the same themes, especially of the separation of heaven and earth, are present in almost all creation myths, all around the world. This speaks of communication between cultures, going back to remote times, and this ties in with the similarities in megalithic construction and pyramid construction also all around the world, going back to the neolithic. Many aspects of societies from places separated by oceans and time are strikingly similar. Some of these can be explained by some inherent human way of thinking, or Jungian archetypes. But others seem too specific to be able to be explained as necessary emanations of the human imagination and psychology, and must be due to cultural exchange. Officially, for academics, in broad terms, there is no connection between the megaliths of the Americas, North and South, of Tonga, Rapa Nui and other Pacific islands, of Asia, Africa and Europe, and other remote islands such as the Azores. Nor is there any officially accepted connection between the pyramids of stone constructed on every continent. Megaliths, pyramids, and creation myths of heaven and earth being separated are explained as coincidences, and these coincidences are mostly ignored. However, the many coincidences in architectural styles, techniques, and creation myths prove that there was exchange on a global scale, before historical records begin. (19)

   A second aspect of creation myths that can perhaps shed some light on prehistoric minds is the fact that heaven and earth come from the basic stuff and are governed by the same cosmic order, and the entire cosmos is alive. Many myths from around the world contain this theme of order from chaos, and the division of the primordial substance into two parts, heaven and earth. First, there is a primordial substance, often watery, and dark, and some kind of deity which lives within, this substance. Somehow life begins within this primordial matter, and as a result every thing that is made with it is infused with life. The recurring theme in creation myths of the transition from a primordial, chaotic state, often described as dark, watery, or undifferentiated, into an ordered, living cosmos, can be understood as a foundation of a philosophy. The act of separation, cutting, or division is a fundamental process in these myths, leading to the duality of heaven and earth, which in turn gives rise to the structured universe. The cosmic order so important to the lives of our prehistoric ancestors depends directly on this story of darkness being transformed into the heavens and earth, followed by the creation of and everything in between. This division seems to reflect the creation of life as we know it today at the level of the cell, which divides itself. The order which governs the cosmos could be understood as present in all aspects of the cosmos, at the microscopic and macroscopic levels, almost like DNA in a cell.

  There has been a tendency, historically, to interpret myths as primitive stories for primitive people, who had no scientific explanations for the world. By the same token, rituals have been interpreted as futile attempts to influence the course of people's lives, and the myths as ways of making sense of these sometimes strange rituals.

In today's world, myths, in particular myths of how the world came to be, can seem completely irrelevant to people's lives, and the forces which govern them, with the exception of a Jungian analysis and archetypes perhaps. A myth describing the primordial waters, and the first gods being ripped apart or murdered by their offspring, might be read sympathetically as a primitive explanation of the world's existence, or as a good story - if a little bleak and disturbing. Or it might be read as a justification for a somewhat brutal ritual practice. This approach connects myths of creation to a worldview governed by ignorance. Perhaps, however, it is possible to connect them to a very sophisticated interpretation of the universe and our place in it. The approach to understanding the world which produced these creation myths may, counter-intuitively perhaps, as they are so old, have been based in arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, and a holistic understanding of the world.

A state of timelessness

Many traditions describe an original state that is unformed, usually watery, dark, and all-encompassing. In the Babylonian Enuma Elish myth, Apsu (freshwater) and Tiamat (saltwater) are the primordial beings. In the Egyptian Hermopolitan creation myth, Nun, the boundless dark water, exists before anything else.  Out of this arose Atum, who created the first land by standing on a primordial mound. Atum gives birth to Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture), who in turn separate Nut (sky) from Geb (earth), and organise the cosmos. In Greek myth (Hesiod’s Theogony): chaos, a dark void, is the original state before anything takes shape. In ancient India, the Rig Veda describes creation emerging from a cosmic ocean. The hymn Nasadiya Sukta speaks of the universe as starting in a state of undifferentiated waters, followed by a primordial golden egg (Hiranyagarbha). The act of creation involved separating heaven and earth, establishing order from the primordial waters.

Importantly, a primordial deity exists within this substance, a divine force, spirit or breath. In the Nasadiya Sukta, in the Rig Veda, though there is neither being nor non-being, there is a deep ocean of potential, with a divine breath.

This divine energy gives rise to time, or becoming. The Orphic Greek myth describes Chronos (time) emerging from the void, generating Aether and Chaos. We could think of this divine energy as consciousness.

If there are no boundaries or limits in this void, then we can connect it to irrational and transcendental numbers, which cannot ever be truly known because they are limitless by their nature. Perhaps, if it is true the Pythagoreans were troubled by the irrationality of certain ratios such as pi or Phi or the square root of two, they believed the primordial chaos was always still present in the ordered world, never entirely defeated, but contained in some ways, approximated as a number, through being in the natural world.

The Nasadiya Sukta shows that there is mystery to creation, and that the gods came after, not before.

(...)

   The hymn suggests that even the gods may not know the origins of the universe, indicating a profound sense of mystery about the world before recorded time. In Indian philosophy, the distinction between Brahma and Shiva highlights two dimensions of the divine: one operating within time and space, and the other existing beyond it. Brahma, the creator, is responsible for the material universe, functioning within the bounds of Maya, the illusion or cosmic veil, that defines the limitations of time, space, and causality. Brahma’s role is to manifest and sustain the order of the cosmos, but this role is inherently tied to cycles of creation and destruction, making Brahma a figure bound by time and the processes of the universe. In contrast, Shiva represents a transcendental reality, one that is beyond the limitations of time, space, and causality.

(5)

The passage from the Skanda Upanishad above describes the relationship between human beings and the ultimate reality. Here, Shiva is the ultimate form of consciousness, beyond the bondage of karma (action) and the cycles of birth and death. The "bondage" referred to in the text is the limitation imposed by maya, or time, space, and causality. Jiva (the individual soul) is bound by karma and the cycles of existence, but once it transcends these limitations through spiritual realisation, it is identified with Shiva, the ultimate, timeless consciousness. While Brahma creates the cosmos and exists within time, Shiva represents the eternal force that is beyond time and space.

This mirrors the Platonic demiurge, who creates the universe according to the eternal Forms, but is also bound by the structures of space and time. The Forms, however, exist outside of time, much like Shiva exists beyond maya. The ordered cosmos ( Rta, as it is known in Vedic thought), within which we live, and which provides the structure for everything from the movements of celestial bodies to the flow of human history, is the principle of harmony that connects all levels of reality, physical, moral, and spiritual. Beyond this ordered universe lies the unmanifested, a reality where these rules never did apply, and where Shiva exists in a state of timelessness, free from the cycles that bind the material world. In a broader sense, these cycles reflect the ancient belief in the cosmic order that governs all aspects of existence, from the rhythm of nature to the morality that structures human life.

Plato’s concept of the Demiurge bears interesting parallels to this Indian thought. In the Timaeus, Plato’s Demiurge is the creator of the universe, much like Brahma, working to bring order to the chaotic, pre-existing matter of the cosmos. The Demiurge does not exist outside time but rather shapes the world within it, working in accordance with the eternal Forms, or ideals. The Forms, akin to the absolute, transcendent nature of Shiva, exist outside time, and represent the ultimate reality. According to these views, the cosmos we live in is ordered, bound by cycles and patterns, and our understanding of it is bound by the limitations of time, space, and causality, and our ultimate liberation or understanding comes from recognising the existence of a reality that is beyond the cycles that govern our immediate experience.

b. Division

In the stories of creation, the pre-ordered, unchanging state contains within it the potential of time, becoming, patterns and order. Something happens: order is created, often by an act of division or separation. In the Babylonian myth, Marduk, the storm god, defeats Tiamat in battle and splits her body in two. He uses one half to form the sky (heaven) and the other to create the earth, establishing order from chaos. In Genesis 1:1–10, creation starts with God bringing order to a formless void. "The earth was without form and void, and darkness was over the face of the deep." God separates light from darkness, waters above from waters below, and finally land from sea. The separation of the "waters above" and "waters below" on the second day is akin to dividing heaven and earth. The Egyptian Heliopolitan myth describes Shu (air) separating Geb (earth) from Nut (sky), preventing their embrace. In Greek myth, Uranus (sky) is castrated by his son Cronus, separating him from Gaia (earth). As Seidenberg remarks:

In Chinese myth, the primordial being Pangu separates yin and yang, lifting the sky away from the earth. Another myth from China is told by Joseph Campbell:

In the Māori mythology of New Zealand, the world began with Rangi (Sky Father) and Papa (Earth Mother) locked in an eternal embrace. Their children, cramped between them, decided to separate their parents. Tāne, the god of forests, pushed them apart, creating the heavens above and the earth below, thus allowing light and life to flourish.

Joseph Campbell, recounting this myth, interprets the series of voids as the mystery of being, from which dualisms such as male and female, sky and earth emanate.

The mysterious process of separation of earth from heaven allows for light, trees, birds, all life forms, including the planets which were considered living things. Yet to achieve this state of affairs, which might be expected to be the result of some kind of creative, gentle and nurturing magic, there is cutting and violence.

Stories of heaven and earth being separated are found all around the world. Earth is a mother, the sky or heavens a father, except in Egypt, where the air-god Shu lifts the sky goddess Nut, from the earth-god, Keb. The basic theme is that the offspring separates the parents, which then become heaven and earth. In Greek myth, Uranus and Gaia are initially united, but are separated when their son Cronus overthrows his father. A similar story occurs in the Gilbert Islands:

 In Japanese Shinto creation myths, the world also begins as a shapeless, chaotic mass, but instead of violence or cutting, the organisation of this chaos is achieved through stirring, with a spear. The gods Izanagi and Izanami churn the ocean, creating the islands of Japan. Heaven (Takamagahara) and earth are gradually distinguished as their offspring and actions shaped the world.

Among the Huron/Wyandot people, the creation story begins with Sky Woman falling from the celestial realm to the watery chaos below. Animals helped to create land for her by bringing up mud from beneath the waters. The sky (heaven) and earth were thus divided and organised to sustain life. In Norse mythology, the world is created from the body of the giant Ymir, who emerged from the primordial chaos of Ginnungagap (a void between fire and ice). After Ymir’s death, the gods used his skull to form the heavens and his flesh to create the earth, effectively organising the cosmos.

Sometimes the primordial state is represented by a monster. In Aztec mythology, the primordial god Ometeotl creates four divine children who shape the cosmos. Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, in particular, separate the heavens from the earth by creating the sky and sea from the body of a defeated monster called Cipactli. The account of creation in Genesis does not feature violence, but there are references elsewhere in the Bible to god defeating the forces of chaos, personified by a sea-monster, Rahab, a primeval, chaotic, multi-headed sea-dragon or Leviathan. (Psalm 89:10, Isaiah 51:9–10, and Job 26:12.)

This last passage is reminiscent of the Shinto stirring the primordial mass.

c. Cosmic order

Once this process of cutting, dividing, slaying or stirring has begun, a cosmic order extends to the celestial and terrestrial realms, a divine law that structures both time and space, ensuring the universe’s harmony and cycles. This order, or principle, at the heart of the physical and spiritual realms, has many names, for example logos in the Greek tradition, dao in the Chinese, rta in the Indian, maat in the Egyptian, and asha in the Zoroastrian.

  Asha is the principle of truth and cosmic order, as the law that governs both the material and spiritual worlds, and the fundamental principle that upholds both nature and human morality. In the ancient Persian tradition, time, space, and causality are structured around a cosmic battle between Ahura Mazda (the god of light, truth, and order) and Angra Mainyu (the spirit of chaos and destruction). This dualistic cosmology represents a universe governed by a clear moral order, with time being divided into distinct eras of creation, conflict, and eventual renewal. This struggle is reminiscent of Christian images of the Archangel Michael fighting the dragon, which is probably derived from the constellation Ophiuchus standing above the constellation Scorpius.

  Within the Greek, pre-Socratic tradition, Heraclitus believed that the universe was in constant flux, governed by a divine law or Logos. The universe is both ordered and cyclical, with change and transformation being inherent to the cosmic order.

      In ancient Chinese cosmology, the interplay between time, space, and causality is central to concepts like the Dao and the yin-yang duality. The Dao, or "the Way," represents the ultimate, unchangeable order of the universe, from which all things emerge and into which all things eventually return. It is akin to the Platonic Forms in its transcendence of the physical world, yet it governs the rhythms of nature, the flow of time, and the balance of opposites in everyday life. In Mesoamerican mythology, the gods create the universe in accordance with a cosmic cycle of ages and sacrifice themselves to maintain order. In Chinese cosmology, the concept of Dao (the Way) represents the natural order underlying all things, governing both celestial and human realms. Joseph Campbell writes:

In the Indian tradition, Vedic hymns are full of references to deities like Indra, Agni, and Soma, and the importance of sacrifices (Yajna) to maintain cosmic order. The world of the Vedas was structured around a strict social order and hierarchical division of labour, known as the Varna system (which later evolved into the caste system). Texts like the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita present concepts such as Samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth), Karma (the law of cause and effect), and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation).

In Plato’s cosmology (Timaeus), a demiurge orders the cosmos by setting celestial spheres in motion. Plato discusses the origins of the universe and cosmic order and presents a mythical account of the creation of the universe, often referred to as a cosmological allegory, through the character Timaeus. The universe was created by a creator, called the Demiurge. This being does not create out of nothing, but rather organises pre-existing chaotic matter into an ordered cosmos. The Demiurge, driven by goodness and intelligence, aims to create the most perfect and harmonious universe possible.

   The Demiurge uses reason and mathematics to impose order on the chaotic material, and the cosmos is constructed as a living being, endowed with soul and intelligence. Plato emphasises that the cosmos is governed by order, proportion, and harmony, reflecting the rational structure imposed by the Demiurge. The cosmic order is deeply rooted in mathematical ratios and geometric forms. In Timaeus, Plato describes how the Demiurge crafts the universe using ideal mathematical forms like the Platonic solids, which are associated with the elements (earth, air, fire, water, and ether).

    In this sense, the universe is an expression of divine reason and mathematical perfection, aligning the cosmos with eternal, unchanging truths. For Plato, cosmic harmony mirrors the Forms, the perfect and eternal ideas that exist beyond the physical world. The universe is also a living entity, with a soul that governs its motion and existence. This World Soul is created using mathematical harmonies, and it connects the physical universe to the eternal realm of the Forms. The soul of the universe is made up of harmonic ratios, linking the movement of the stars and planets to a grand, cosmic harmony.

   The motion of the stars and planets is not the source of cosmic order, but a reflection of it. The celestial bodies move in orbits, forming a geometrically ordered cosmos, often referred to as the "music of the spheres". This ancient idea suggests that the movements of the planets create a kind of musical harmony that reflects the deeper structure of reality.

The demiurge is an organiser. What was disordered became ordered. The universe was made into a cosmos with a soul and this soul keeps everything in the universe linked together. Plato shows that the system which we can extrapolate from the motions of the sky is relevant to how we live, or should live. One of the key texts that illustrates this concept is The Laws, where Plato emphasises how human beings should align their lives with the divine order of the universe.

Through these stories and philosophies, a view emerges according to which the cosmos was a living organism, and we as humans had a part to play in conserving its balance and well-being.

    Plato suggests that the orderly motion of the cosmos, especially the movements of the stars and planets, serves as a model for human behaviour. He implies that living virtuously means aligning oneself with this cosmic order, which is a reflection of divine reason and justice. In Timaeus (90c-d), Plato also describes the human soul’s connection to the stars, which is likened to a divine element within:

   This passage connects living in harmony with reason and the cosmos to a form of cosmic destiny and spiritual reward, reinforcing that the individual’s life should mirror the harmonious workings of the universe. This idea reflects Plato’s broader belief that the cosmos embodies divine order, and that human beings should strive to live in accordance with that order. The idea of a soul departing this world for a star strengthens the connection to the heavenly bodies regulating life, and is reminiscent of the ancient Egyptian beliefs of the afterlife, in which departing souls would travel to, and then back from, one of the two intersections in the sky between the ecliptic and the Milky Way, as we see them from earth, the Golden and Silver Gates.

What happens when the cosmic order is not upheld? What would be the consequences for us humans, or for the rest of the world?

I remembered the concept of Koyaanisqatsi, the Hopi word for "life out of balance", which was the title of a film, in the early 80s. So I decided to look for an account of the Hopi philosophy and was surprised to find it closely matched what I had imagined the mindset builders of the ancient world to be, who had encoded the numbers and ratios from astronomy and nature. A 1945 study of the Hopi philosophy found that through art, artefacts, institutions, customs, myth and ritual, a belief in a complex and unified whole can be arrived at, so that every essential part of which contributes to, and is conditioned by, the over-all structural totality.

This view of all life being part of one cosmos, behaving according to one law, is very close to the Platonic view, and also to the many myths of creation from around the world. We as humans play a role in maintaining this order, for the Hopi, and if we do so every part of the cosmos benefits. The study adds:

This emphasis on ritual mechanisms directed towards promotion of the life process in all its manifestations seems compatible with the idea of preserving the balance of nature through human activity. The parts and the whole operate together, according to the Law of the universe. But far from this being a philosophy about feeling connected to nature, this is also a way of structuring human life, from religion, to society and politics, all of which are influenced by an interpretation of the cosmic law. This is also very close to Platonism. The author of the study adds:

While there was no mention of the encoding of astronomical cycles in the ratios and proportions of their buildings in the study, it is perhaps possible that the Hopi also did this in the past. In any case, the idea that we as humans must design our lives as individuals, as a society, in accordance with what we understand the cosmic law to be, and to study the cosmos in order to bring about harmony, is a way to understand why astronomical numbers would have been encoded at Giza and elsewhere, in the proportions and measurements.

The view according to which the entire cosmos is in some way alive, a living organism, can be difficult to relate to, especially in so-called western societies, where we tend to believe the universe is essentially lifeless matter, and that somehow, once, long along, life miraculously appeared within this lifeless matter, perhaps in an ocean here on our planet, after many conditions had been put in place, and formed a long and as yet unbroken chain through time of living things.

3. Heaven and Earth are united

The implications of the separation of heaven and earth and the creation of cosmic order from something which is unordered are:

1. The universe is alive. Even the primordial substance is imbued with a divine breath. If planets, stars, and elements emerge from divine entities (perhaps killed, maimed or divided), or a primordial substance which is already in some sense alive, then they are not just physical bodies but living, animated parts of a life force.

2. The universe is structured and governed by order, which is the result of (or perhaps results in) the separation of the heavens and the earth from the primordial matter. If the myths show that order emerges through separation and structuring, it means that order is not accidental but fundamental to existence. This separation is similar to the division of a cell.

3. If the cosmos and everything in it is alive, then we are part of a world in which everything depends on a balance to live well. It is a balance of nature which extends, unlike in most people's minds today, to the heavenly bodies.

4. As the cosmos, or universe, is a single living organism, every part of it has a role to play in the overall health or well-being of the whole. This means that as humans, we have a role to play in maintaining the balance of the living world, which means every part of the universe. And in turn, every part of the natural world has an influence in our lives, including what we today think of as the living world, and celestial bodies.

5. Numbers and cycles are sacred: since the celestial bodies follow ordered cycles, numbers and proportions derived from them (such as lunar and solar cycles) are embedded in sacred architecture and city planning.

   
   

The role we have to play in keeping the cosmic balance is key. While heaven and earth were separated, they are essentially made of the same stuff, governed by the same law, animated by the same soul. . The transition from chaos to order through separation, and the embedding of that order in every aspect of existence, from the cosmos to human civilisation requires the re-unification of heaven and earth. Cities, temples, music, calendars, and measurements all had to reflect the sacred numbers of the cosmos, derived from planetary cycles, sun and moon cycles, and the proportions seen in nature.

According to the i Ching:

Dharma in the Indian tradition and the Forms in Plato’s philosophy both represent higher principles of cosmic order, reflecting an ancient understanding of a reality that underpins and governs the universe. These concepts serve as the foundation for both the physical and moral dimensions of life, providing structure and meaning to existence. In Indian cosmology, dharma is the natural law that regulates the universe, human behaviour, and society. It is the eternal and unchanging principle that ensures cosmic balance, dictating the duties and responsibilities of all beings. Everything in the universe has its place and function within this larger framework, and harmony is achieved when beings act in accordance with their dharma. Likewise, the cycles of creation and destruction, embodied by Brahma’s role, are guided by dharma, reflecting the importance of number and order in maintaining cosmic equilibrium. The precise cosmic cycles in Hindu cosmology, such as the yugas and kalpas, are seen as expressions of this deeper cosmic order.

Similarly, in Plato’s philosophy, the Forms represent the eternal, perfect, and unchanging realities that exist beyond the physical world. For Plato, the cosmos itself is an ordered reflection of these abstract Forms, which are accessed through reason and understanding. Plato's cosmos is shaped by reason and divine intelligence, where every aspect of the physical and metaphysical world is part of an interconnected order. This cosmic order influences not only the stars and planets but also time, life on Earth, and the human soul. Plato’s view emphasises that to live in harmony with the cosmos is to live according to the principles of reason, balance, and proportion, reflecting the divine order at the heart of existence.

The I Ching also emphasises the importance of moral conduct in maintaining the cosmic balance, with human actions affecting the harmony of the heavens and earth.

   This passage reflects the belief in a cosmos that is ordered and in perpetual motion, with the creative force of the universe bringing about cycles of renewal and transformation.

Plato’s ideal society, as described in the Republic, and the Indian caste system, both reflect an underlying belief in cosmic order, proportions, and geometry. Plato organises his ideal society in the Republic based on the principle of harmony, which directly mirrors the harmony he sees in the cosmos. He divides society into three classes: rulers (philosopher-kings), warriors, and producers (farmers, artisans, etc.). These three groups correspond to the three parts of the soul: reason, spirit, and appetite. Just as the soul must be harmonised to achieve justice within an individual, society must be organised harmoniously to achieve justice on a larger scale.

In Plato’s view, this harmony is reflected in mathematical proportions. For example, in his later work, the Laws, Plato discusses the importance of specific numbers for the functioning of a state, such as the ideal number of citizens. Numbers and geometry govern both the physical structure of the cosmos and the organisation of human society. Plato sees these numerical and geometrical relationships as reflections of a deeper cosmic harmony, which should be mirrored in the organisation of a just society. Plato also refers to the Golden Mean or proportionality as a key principle that leads to balance, both in the individual soul and in society. His famous analogy of the divided line and the Allegory of the Cave are rooted in geometrical relationships, emphasising the ordered ascent of the soul from ignorance to knowledge through a structured, proportionate process.

Just what the role of the individual was within society, within the divine order, is impossible to say, and must have changed over time, and across the world. But it seems that a belief in divine order did govern the lives of people, at the individual and social level, across vast parts of the world. This is an aspect of life I had underestimated before studying the measurements of the pyramids. It seems that the pyramids, the wall of the city of Khorsabad, and probably many other ancient monuments and constructions were expressions of divine law, as understood in terms of number, geometry, cosmic cycles.

Aligning with the cosmic order would have been not only a path to personal virtue but a way of ensuring the survival of civilisation. Festivals, rituals, and sacred architecture were designed to reflect the movements of celestial bodies, and leaders were expected to maintain justice in alignment with cosmic principles. The Egyptian pharaohs’ role in maintaining Maat, or the Aztec priesthood's role in ensuring proper rites to sustain the sun, are examples of this belief in action. Ultimately, these traditions saw the universe as an intricately ordered and sacred system, governed by divine laws that humanity was both subject to and responsible for maintaining. Whether through myth, ritual, or sacred architecture, many ancient civilisations demonstrated a deep commitment to living in harmony with the cosmos, reflecting their understanding that their well-being and survival were tied to the delicate balance of the universe. While the belief in cosmic order, cycles, and divine harmony was widespread across ancient cultures, there are indications from both texts and archaeological evidence that not all individuals or groups within these societies fully subscribed to or strictly adhered to these ideas. Although such perspectives may not have been the dominant or formalised philosophies, they reflect the diversity of thought even within cultures that were otherwise deeply rooted in these cosmological views.

Naturally, this view could not have been universal. At any given time, people might have questioned these ideas. The Epicureans, in ancient Greece, for example, viewed life and the universe in terms of randomness and chance, rather than divine cosmic cycles. In the 6th century the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century BC challenged the dominant Brahmanical worldview. The Charvaka school of materialists, a heterodox tradition in ancient India, outright rejected metaphysical concepts like karma, cosmic order, and divine law. They argued that the material world was all there was, rejecting both the sacred cosmology of the Vedas and the more spiritualised worldview of other philosophies like Buddhism and Jainism.

Plato’s emphasis on ideal proportions in the construction of his Kallipolis can be seen in the same light as the emphasis on Vastu Shastra in ancient India, where buildings are designed according to cosmic geometry to maintain harmony between the human and the divine. Both philosophies of order point to the deeper belief in a universal structure that governs all things, from morality to the material world. Through this lens, the measurements and proportions found in ancient monuments and texts are more than practical; they reflect an attempt to live in accordance with the eternal cosmic order. Vastu Shastra in India and Feng Shui in China are systems of architecture based on cosmic principles. Vastu emphasizes designing buildings in harmony with natural forces and cosmic laws, reflecting the ancient Indian belief that physical structures must align with universal order to promote health, prosperity, and spiritual well-being. It is likely that in many parts of the world, the design of temples and monuments was aligned with celestial cycles and mathematical proportions that symbolised cosmic harmony. The precision of these measurements was believed to bring humans into closer alignment with the divine. The Egyptian pyramids would therefore have been symbolic representations of the cosmos, possibly built with a view to preserve harmony in the cosmos, and as a result in human society. The Great Pyramid's alignment with the cardinal points, together with its measurements and its proportions, could have reflected the order of the universe, creating a sacred space that linked the earthly with the divine. Cities and temples which had numbers encoded in the design derived from astronomy may have been seen as protected, as if by a spell or charm, by the inclusion of these numbers. If one of the keys to success in life was to understand the workings of the cosmos, then it would ave made sense to include this information in any endeavour, especially one which was about protecting citizens, or worshipping the divine. It's possible that the alignments that can be found all over the world between ancient monuments were also the product of this mindset, according to which the landscape should be shaped in relation to sunrise or sunset lines, constellations, or some other blueprint derived from the natural world.

This wasn't about conquering nature, as our modern moral codes allow, but about living with nature, based on an understanding every part of creation is made of the same stuff, and governed by the same law or order, including human, animal, plants, seas, sun, moon and stars. Not only that we are governed by the same forces, and in order to live well we must let the forces that govern the sun, moon, stars, and perhaps also nature too, govern our lives, on the individual level, social level, and also religious level, and in death. In doing so we help maintain the order in nature, especially in the night sky. There is a sense of the importance of the human, as a conduit, and as a protector, not as a lord over the other elements of the world.

What I am proposing is that the world of the pyramid and megalith builders, because they encoded so much astronomical and geometric knowledge into the designs, was one in which the divine was all around, and cosmic order was present in every aspect of the universe, microcmosm and macrocosm, heaven and earth, individual and social, during life, and before and after it.

Conclusion

"We sense the dead have a vital force still. They have something to tell us, something we need to understand." Hilary Mantel (1)

In looking back, as Hilary Mantel suggests, we listen and look, not to replicate the past but to understand how its beliefs, philosophies, and views of the cosmos still shape our world today. And we try to understand how people shaped their world, in the past. We are still the inheritors of this ancient, fabulous world in which the harmony of the cosmos shaped everything from architecture to morality, music to religion. But we are also the inheritors of dissent to this fundamental idea, this subservience to cosmic cycles, to society being regulated according to strict principles supposedly derived from the study of the skies.

The ancient belief in the harmony of the cosmos, central to life and human thought for millennia, shaped everything from morality to architecture, music, and religion. This worldview saw the cosmos as an intricate, divine system, in which humans played a vital part. The stars, seasons, and cycles of nature were seen not as distant, unrelated phenomena but as deeply interconnected with human existence. Morality, too, was aligned with this cosmic order, virtue meant living in harmony with the universe’s patterns. Architecture, often guided by astronomy, number and geometry, mirrored the cosmos, with temples and monuments designed to reflect celestial movements. Music was attuned to this harmony, believed to resonate with the "music of the spheres," the idea that planetary motion produced a form of sound or vibration that reflected the universe’s structure. Surprisingly perhaps, panpsychism, the view that the universe is alive, is not necessarily divorced from the view that the universe is governed by mathematical principles, quite the contrary.

As Hilary Mantel reflects, the past has a "vital force still," and in exploring this ancient cosmic philosophy, we see how deeply it influenced earlier civilisations. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese, and Indians, among others, shared this profound sense of the cosmos as a living order. Many of the world’s major religions and thought systems emerged from, or in response to, this fundamental worldview. In some ways, these new systems, whether monotheistic or individualistic, challenged the idea of humanity’s intrinsic bond with the cosmos. However, they can be understood all the better when viewed as responses to the ancient cosmic order they either sought to reform or replace.

Elements of this old worldview persist. Yoga, a common practice today all over the world, has an emphasis on unity between body, mind, and cosmos. Many people today still sense a longing for harmony, a desire to restore balance between the individual, community, and the greater universe. In our secular, scientifically-minded age, this ancient view offers a different way of seeing the world, one that sees the individual not as detached from nature, but as a vital participant in a universal order. In recent centuries have seen a deep transformation in how humans relate to both their communities and the cosmos. The connection between individual freedom and the collective harmony that had once been central was replaced by a more mechanistic, observational worldview, and morality based on individual responsibility, internal, deriving from rationality. Cosmic cycles and harmony, once seen as metaphysical truths that governed everything from agriculture to the rise and fall of civilisations, have became less relevant in a world where reason, individual autonomy, and empirical science have taken precedence.

Notes

1. Hilary Mantel, Reith Lectures, "The Day is for Living", https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b08tcbrp

2. Plato Timaeus 39d-40a

3. Plato The Laws (716c)

4. Haagensen, Erling & Lincoln, Henry, 2000, The Templars' Secret Island, The Windrush Press, Gloucestershire

5. Skanda Upanishad of Krishna-Yajurveda, from Thirty minor Upanishads, by K. Narayanasvami Aiyar, 1914, https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/thirty-minor-upanishads/d/doc217007.html

6. There is a 3:4:5 triangle in the proportions of the second biggest pyramid at Giza, in the Crucuno rectangle in Brittany, a 5:12:13 triangle in the Aubrey circle at Stonehenge. In Indian tradition, the Sulba Sutras, ancient Indian texts on geometry, contain rules for constructing altars with precise measurements, implying knowledge of geometric principles akin to Pythagorean triples. In the Chinese tradition, the Zhoubi Suanjing, an ancient Chinese mathematical text, includes problems related to right-angled triangles, suggesting an understanding of similar geometric concepts. In the Babylonian tradition there are several tablets including the Yale, Susa and Plimpton 322.

7. Lord Raglan, The Hero (London, 1949), p. I30; Jocasta's Crime (London, 1940), p. io6, quoted in Seidenberg, A. (1969). The Separation of Sky and Earth at Creation (II). Folklore, 80(3), 188–196. https://www-jstor-org.dcu.idm.oclc.org/stable/pdf/1257894.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A36b84a40aa5ded4755414aa036f6998c&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&initiator=search-results&acceptTC=1

8. A. Grimble, 'Myths from the Gilbert Islands', Folklore, vol 5, quoted in  in Seidenberg, A. (1969). The Separation of Sky and Earth at Creation (II). Folklore, 80(3), 188–196. https://www-jstor-org.dcu.idm.oclc.org/stable/pdf/1257894.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A36b84a40aa5ded4755414aa036f6998c&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&initiator=search-results&acceptTC=1

   
   

9. Campbell, Joseph, first published 1949, The Hero With a Thousand Faces, 2004 by Princeton University Press, p 251:

   https://www.eriesd.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=35845&dataid=53662&FileName=The%20Hero%20with%20a%20Thousand%20Faces.pdf

10. Ibid

11. Ibid.

12. Campbell, Joseph, first published 1949, The Hero With a Thousand Faces, 2004 by Princeton University Press, p 262-263

13. Seidenberg, A. “The Separation of Sky and Earth at Creation.” Folklore, vol. 70, no. 3, 1959, pp. 477–82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1257894. Accessed 26 Jan. 2025.

14. Heath, Richard & Heath, Robin, 2010, "The Origins of Megalithic Astronomy as found at Le Manio"

     https://www.academia.edu/5384545/The_Origins_of_Megalithic_Astronomy_as_found_at_Le_Manio)

15. Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, 1883, https://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/

16. The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, An Ancient Indian Work on Mathematics and Astronomy, translated with notes by Walter Eugene Clark, Professor of Sanskrit in Harvard University, The University of Chicago Press, Illinois, 1929. p.8

    https://ia801309.us.archive.org/35/items/The_Aryabhatiya_of_Aryabhata_Clark_1930/The_Aryabhatiya_of_Aryabhata_Clark_1930.pdf

17. Quoted in G.R.S. Mead, 1906, Thrice-Greatest Hermes, Volume 1, http://gnosis.org/library/grs-mead/TGH-v1/index.html

18. See https://www.mercurialpathways.com/post/80-the-wall-of-khorsabad

19. See 85. Left Eye, Right Eye: How a Simple Myth Can Prove Widespread Cultural Exchange in Prehistory

20. Rig Veda (translation and commentary)

    by H. H. Wilson | 1866 |https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig-veda-english-translation/d/doc840081.html

21. Ibid.

22. Thompson, Laura. “Logico-Aesthetic Integration in Hopi Culture.” American Anthropologist, vol. 47, no. 4, 1945, pp. 540–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/663374.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid.

25. Campbell, Joseph, 1949, The Hero with A Thousand Faces, p 242, https://www.eriesd.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=35845&dataid=53662&FileName=The%20Hero%20with%20a%20Thousand%20Faces.pdf

    
    
    
    

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